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Some thoughts on the 2019 NAEP reading-score decline

2019 NAEP scores have been released, and the results in reading†¦ aren’t good. As the New York Times reports: Two out of three children did not meet the standards for reading proficiency set by the National Assessment of Educational Progress, a test administered by the National Center for Education Statistics, the research arm of the Education Department. The dismal results reflected the performance of about 600,000 students in reading and math, whose scores made up what is called the â€Å"nation’s report card.† The average eighth-grade reading score declined in more than half of the states compared with 2017, the last time the test was given. The average score in fourth-grade reading declined in 17 states.  Math scores remained relatively flat in most states. Only 35 percent of fourth graders were proficient in reading in 2019, down from 37 percent in 2017; 34 percent of eighth graders were proficient in reading, down from 36 percent. Overall student progress in reading has stalled in the last decade, with the highest performers stagnating and the lowest-achieving students falling further behind. Despite attempts to pin the blame on poverty and other social ills, the fact that math scores have not declined to anywhere near as much as reading scores suggests that the problem lies in the schools—in considerable part, at least. Intuitively, at least, it does not make sense to suggests that socio-economic factors could suddenly have such an outsized impact on one area of the curriculum while having almost no effect on another. In fact, math scores actually improved in some states. Most glaringly absent was any mention of the fact that 1) many schools are failing to teach phonics, either effectively or at all; and that 2) once students can decode well, reading comprehension becomes a proxy for knowledge. Thus, if schools are not making an explicit  effort to systematically develop students’ general knowledge, no one should be surprised when their reading skills suffer. (Notably absent as well was a serious discussion of the effects of technology on students attention spans and ability to sustain focus on complex material, obviously a huge factor as well, but thats not my main concern here.) Part of the problem is that â€Å"reading† is treated as a single entity rather than the result of many separate components all working together. Failure (or perhaps willful refusal) to understand what these components are and how they interact makes effective remedies impossible. According to the simple view of reading (Gough and Turner, 1986)—a model that has been more or less universally accepted by researchers for several decades—the ability to read depends on two main factors: 1) decoding ability, and 2) comprehension of spoken language (which comprises myriad factors, including syntax, vocabulary, background knowledge, etc.). Weakness in one or both of these areas leads to a reading problem. So, for example, a student may be able to understand sophisticated oral language but have weak decoding skills; conversely, a student may have strong decoding skills but weak vocabulary and background knowledge. More commonly, the two deficits present in tandem—this is what researchers often refer to as a â€Å"garden-variety† reading problem. Obviously, there are many complexities within those two factors, but at the most basic level, these are the components of reading. So if students are struggling to read on a large scale, then either one or (much more probably) both of those factors is the culprit, and they need to be taken as the starting points for any serious attempt at remediation. While other, external factors obviously play a role in what students know when they enter the classroom, as well as in their attitude toward school and reading, ignoring the factors laid out in the simple view—factors that schools can control— is an act of stunning neglect. For most students, the two abilities do not fully converge until around eighth grade—before that, children can generally understand spoken language more sophisticated than what they can read. But if the ability to translate what one comprehends by ear into an understanding of written marks on the page is not properly developed, or if students’ general language skills and knowledge base remain weak, then a gap between the two sides will persist, and students will be unprepared to read at a more advanced level in high school. The fact that such a steep drop-off occurs in eighth-grade reading scores, precisely at the point when all the various factors involved in proficient reading typically come together, very strongly suggests that the two sides of the equation are not being dealt with effectively throughout elementary and middle school, and that, moreover, curricular deficiencies become more pronounced and cumulative as students advance through the middle grades. Until the middle grades, students who have not learned to decode well but who have memorized lots of sight words can often disguise their difficulties because the texts they are expected to read remains relatively simple; beginning around seventh grade, though, the volume of new words becomes overwhelming, and the deficits impossible to hide. This alone goes a long way to potentially explain why the decline in eighth-grade reading scores was so more widespread than the decline in fourth-grade scores. For students who do become proficient decoders, background knowledge becomes the dominant factor in comprehension. For that group, the obvious implication is that reading deficits become more pronounced between fourth and eighth grades because schools are increasingly failing to furnish students with the knowledge they need to understand a wide range of topics. One possible explanation for the 2017-2019 decline is that more experienced teachers are retiring or are being effectively pushed out of the profession in many areas, and are getting replaced by younger, more haphazardly trained colleagues more likely to drink the edu-koolaid about skills vs. knowledge. Alternately, the students in eighth grade now might have been exposed to a more skills-oriented, test-centric curriculum all along, and so have actually gained less subject-based knowledge as compared to classes just a couple of years ahead of them. Indeed, this group of students would have been exposed to Common Core for essen tially their entire school careers. No doubt, the test-and-punish regime, and its accompanying obsessive focus on mastering formal skills (finding the point, inferencing, etc.) at the expense of actually learning about things like history and science, has ironically played a key role in exacerbating the very problem it was designed to solve. But the persistent disparagement of learning â€Å"mere, rote facts,† and the belief that critical thinking skills can be developed in the absence of a substantive body of knowledge, should not be underestimated either. Add in the fact that many teachers themselves have a shaky knowledge base in their subjects, and you have a recipe for a disaster. Does the article discuss any of this? Of course not. And will the powers that be take it into account? Almost certainly not as well. Just as telling as the article itself is the comments section, however; as a snapshot of educated Americans’ attitudes toward Why Johnny Still Can’t Read, it’s remarkably illuminating. As I read through the comments, a few major themes stuck out for me. They shed light on some common misconceptions about reading and help explain why there isn’t more pressure on schools to adopt programs/curriculums that might make a real difference. First (and unsurprisingly), many if not most commenters seemed to be operating under the assumption that becoming a good reader is a largely an emotional process—that if students could only be taught in such a way that would result in their  loving  to read, then the problem would be largely resolved. (Although it’s hard to love to read when you can’t figure out the words on the page, which is typically the case for the weakest readers.) As one astute commenter (teacher) pointed out, however, no one wrings their hands over whether students are sufficiently enamored of equations! (Or, I would add to that, how much time their parents spend with them on numeracy-building activities.) But because proficient reading is viewed as a fuzzy, romantic process rather than the culmination of many discrete skills, people have difficulty conceiving of it in intellectual terms. Second, the belief that students would naturally become readers if given books on topics that interested them. Now, obviously children are more likely to enjoy books about topics in which they have an established interest; and yes, some children will use such books as steppingstones for new interests. However, on a broad scale this solution is exactly backwards. Assuming that children can decode competently, they need to be deliberately exposed to—and explicitly taught about—  new  topics so that they can acquire a broader range of knowledge and be able to understand texts on a wider range of subjects. If children are allowed to stay only in their comfort zones, that’s a lot less likely to happen. When you think about it, the narrative is actually quite contradictory here: on one hand, people burble on endlessly about children’s natural curiosity, but on the other hand insist that reading problems can be solved by NOT introducing children to new things. But if teachers are averse to providing students with sufficient knowledge to understand texts about new topics, then of course students won’t enjoy them. I mean, seriously, duh. I did find some general references to the narrowing effects of standardized testing on curriculum, but these were generally cast in terms of destroying students’ interest in reading rather than on the fact that it’s hard to understand texts on topics you don’t know anything about. Third, I couldn’t help but be struck by many commenters’ sentiment that reading can’t really be taught—or at least that schools can’t really be expected to teach it—because students’ fates are  entirely  sealed by the home environments, and that there is nothing schools can do to counteract it (as one commenter put it, she got the â€Å"reading gene† from her parents).  If parents don’t read to their children or provide a literacy-rich home environment†¦ well, schools can’t really be expected to do anything about that. As Betsy Devos is quoted as saying, â€Å"Think about the mom or dad who cannot read, and so does not read to their own children at bedtime,† Ms. DeVos said as she released the scores. â€Å"Think about what that portends for their lifelong learning. The amusing part is how many commenters—people no doubt in horror of Devos’s agenda—agree. Let me point out that we are talking about middle-schoolers here. How many parents still read to their 11- to 14-year-olds at bedtime? (And how many kids that age still want their parents to read to them?) Furthermore, the decline between fourth and eighth grades—just when students outgrow the â€Å"being read to† years—implies that there is something else going on. One plausible explanation is that students—particularly disadvantaged ones—are increasingly either plopped in front of computers and left to â€Å"self-direct† their learning, or put in groups where they largely spend their time talking to their classmates. What they are not hearing enough of is structured, academic adult speech—the kind of speech that comes far closer to written  English than anything heard in casual conversation. The problem is not that parents aren’t talking to children; it’s that teachers aren’t talking to them, or at least not in ways that can be translated to the page. But the taboo against direct, teacher-centered instruction is so extreme as to preclude consideration of that factor. If anything, the decline in scores will be taken as a signal to double down and insist that the problems stem from schools being insufficiently student-centered. The â€Å"environment-is-destiny† argument also stands out to me because it comes from both the left and the right: the former asserts that poverty is the sole cause of low scores, and that no progress can possibly be made without economic gains; the latter that â€Å"cultural factors,† poor work ethic, familial dysfunction, etc. have rendered a subset of children effectively uneducable, and that these pathologies are so entrenched that any attempt to counteract them is bound to fail. Now obviously, both of these views draw on socio-economic realities to some extent, but they have also been hashed to death elsewhere. What concerns me, rather, is how they converge to produce a kind of fatalism; if schools are so thoroughly unable to carry out central part of their mission because of external factors, then one is left wondering what exactly they are for (social-emotional learning perhaps?). But perhaps that is the point. Essentially, schools are damned if they do, damned if they don’t. If they do attempt to provide students with the broad knowledge necessary to become competent readers across a variety of fields, then they are derided for teaching disconnected, rote, pointless facts, unnecessary for twenty-first century learners who can look everything up on Wikipedia. If they don’t provide students with the broad general knowledge they need to become competent readers across a variety of fields, then test scores sink, fueling the narrative that schools are failing and paving the way for even further â€Å"reforms† and destabilization of the system. Anyone want to offer a way out?

The Law Of The United States - 1512 Words

For example, creating the precedent in Republic Steel that requires an employee fired in violation of the NLRA to find another similar job as soon as possible to mitigate damages or risk the being awarded back pay or the legally unsupported Brown University case, decided by one of the most conservative Boards in recent history, held, â€Å"as a matter of policy,† that graduate student workers were students and, and, therefore, could not be employees as defined by the NLRA. Republic Steel, Dannin, supra note 44 at 260–63. Id. See Consol. Edison Co. v. NLRB, 305 U.S. 197, 220 (1938) (holding that the power of the Board to punish an employer who violates the NLRA is â€Å"remedial, not punitive.†); Republic Steel Corp. v. NLRB, 311 U.S. 7, 10†¦show more content†¦Morris ed. 1987) (â€Å"the NLRB has not only failed to prevent unfair labor practices, but has actually encouraged their commission because its processes and remedies are so ineffective.†); Martha S. West, The Case Against Reinstatement in Wrongful Discharge, 1988 U. ILL L. REV. 1 25-29, 64 (1988) (finding that the current remedies available to the NLRB are ineffective in preventing employers from committing unfair labor practices); Robert M Worster III, Casenote: If It’s Hardly Worth Doing, It’s Hardly Worth Doing Right: How the NLRA’s Goals Are Defeated Through Inadequate Remedies, 38, U. RICH. L. REV. 1073, 1083 (2004) (â€Å"[l]abor law is so weak that companies often treat the minor penalties as a routine cost of doing business, not a deterrent against violations.†). Henry S. Drummonds, Reforming Labor Law by Reforming Labor Law Preemption Doctrine to Allow the States to Make More Labor Relations Policy, 70 LA. L. REV. 97, 120 (2009). â€Å"It shall be an unfair labor practice for an employer . . . by discrimination in regard to hire or tenure of employment or any term or condition of employment to encourage or discourage membership i n any labor organization.† National Labor Relations Act  § 160. Morris M. Kleiner David Weil, Evaluating the Effectiveness of National Labor Relations Act Remedies: Analysis and Comparison with other Workplace Penalty Policies, in RESEARCH HANDBOOK ON THE ECONOMICS

My First Graphic Design Class - 934 Words

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In the advertising field, there are different types of jobs that focus on different aspects. Most of the time, these jobs include account planning, account management, and â€Å"creatives† which are graphic designers and writers. An Advertising Manager is basically in charge of all of these departments, meaning that they need to have some experience in each field. An Advertising Manager leads and plans the tasks needed in order to generate interest for a product and decide what an advertisement will say, how it look, and who the targetShow MoreRelatedThe Economic Principles Of Tradeoff And Opportunity Cost848 Words   |  4 Pagesthree electives to take next semester: French, Creative Writing, or Graphic Design. As a marketing major, each of these classes will provide a valuable experience that can help me as a potential job candidate after graduation. 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Integrative Research Methodologies

Question: Discuss about the Integrative Research Methodologies. Answer: Introduction The integrative research is a review as well as systematic approach used as the evidence in the selected question. Moreover, the integrative research is a research evidence concerning the current situation in a respective field or an organization. The integrative research is carried to outline the various perspectives as well as methodologies that provides the foundation of the research. Although, integrative research not only helps in draw the overall conclusions bit also helps in outline the practical significance(Weinreich, 2016). Conversely, in this assignment the integrated research review will be carried out for a sports organization that is an international sportswear for more than 100 sports that includes rugby league, hockey, cricket and football named as Kukri. The methodologies adopted will help in analysing the different trends using the experiments that only help in getting sufficient evidence for the market but will also help in guiding through the popularity of the organization(Gosling, 2015). The evidence received from the qualitative as well as quantitative analysis will contribute to the research through community resources. Quantitative Research Methods The quantitative research methods are the numerical as well as quantifiable data that is based on different experimentation. However, the quantitative method considered here is non-experimental quantitative research where the existing variables are studied (Walliman, 2015). However, the organization that we have taken needs to be studied on the issue of question of cash in the Kukri regarding the IT problems as well as the serious illness of the senior member lead to service failures. Although, the study will be manifested on the two groups one who were involved in the issue and one who were not. Nevertheless, the personal characteristic of each individual will lead to data analysis of the possible result. Cross- Sectional Studies The cross sectional study is the quantitative observational study that is descriptive in nature with respect to outcome and the risk factors. The cross- sectional studies are termed to be relative as they are carried one time only (Krickeberg, Pham Pham, 2012). However, they do not give sequence of events even if they are performed again. This study is best for analysing the change in trends based on hypothesis generated research. On the other hand, the event issue in Kukri Sportswear Company though will not relate causality but if done manually may help in evaluating the current and the future research. The possible strengths as well as weaknesses of this research can be given in the table below. Strengths Weaknesses This research is inexpensive and does not involve any funding (Bryman Bell, 2015). It is difficult to make any association or connection between the previous as well as current study. No casual inference. It is efficient in estimating the viability of interest in the related issue such that sample taken estimated the population such that there is loss to follow up study (Krickeberg, Pham Pham, 2012). Different results in different timeframes. Therefore, the question of cash issue in sportswear company took place in 2015. Today in 2016, the results might be different and may not be affecting the previous result. Many results and risk are considered It results in prevalence-incidence bias (Neyman bias). The longer lasting effect will be represented on present circumstances (KremersCakir, 2014). Analysis:The cross sectional study is assessed to provide a different scenario that might be related based on hypothesis but this may incorporate to be good opportunity to achieve a wide base of knowledge for the respondents who have the certain result of interest with optimal solution levels. Quasi- Experimental Studies Quasi- Experimental Study is the study to measure the social variables such that are recognized under the experimental process. Although, this method is quantitative in nature but it resembles to be qualitative as well. The study is based on section of groups and this can be considered one of the apt method to perform the experiment. There is no pre selection of groups but the division is convenient as different values are guided in different groups but a little disruption is possible(Shuttleworth, 2016). The study is to analyse the reason for the issue and the actual reason for the delay in services in Kukri regrading sportswear to reach to the customers. Moreover, the two variables considered in this case are the ones who were subjectively involved and not involved in the event to take place. Strengths Weaknesses The grouping between the employees can be an issue but results can be generated of the trends in the sportswear company As it does not involves randomization, statistical results generated would be meaningless As subjected, it is often illustrated with the internal case studies and allow some sort of statistical input to take place(Shuttleworth, 2016). The research will not stands up to rigorous statistical scrutiny as a result the researcher would not be able to control the factors that have affected the outcomes (Campbell Stanley, 2015). As it does not involves pre-screening and randomization. It avoids necessary costs, time as well as resources undertaken in the research (Campbell Stanley, 2015). Kukri would not be able to gauge accurately which groups possessed information regarding the issue and were influenced by the factors. Analysis:Quasi Experimental design is considered to be a powerful as a reliable tool as it is able to assess the validity of the issue. Moreover, it will highlight the key areas were the true experiment was possible. Hence, it provides a good overview of the results generated from the experimental design. Table 1: Strength and weakness of the analysis (Source: created by author) Participants, Sampling, Cost/ Funding, Time frames, Resource and Feasibility The participants considered in quantitative research methods are large yet the sampling undertaken is systematic random probability sampling. The quantitative research methods yet are feasible but may illustrate more resources. However, the costs as well as time frames is less as compared to qualitative research methods (Bryman Bell, 2015). Qualitative Research Methods The qualitative research method is a type of research that is done to seek answers to problem statement or a research question. It is defined based on the systematic set of procedures that are predetermined in advance. The qualitative research is done to evaluate the specific phenomenon through the implication of quantitative data (Creswell, 2013). Kukri is a sportswear organization where it needs to analyse the internal environment of the country which can only be possible with the help of research that involves the detail perspective of the organization and its sportswear in different sports. The two qualitative methods that will be undertaken are in-depth interviews and participant observation. In-depth Interviews The in-depth interviews are optimal for collection of the perspectives as well as experiences on the sensitive topics. However, when we compared with the organization. The in-depth interview will help us getting the insight from the middle as well as the senior level management on the organizations position in the market and the internal environment of the Kukri. The in-depth interview will be in an open-ended questions where the respondents not only answer questions like yes or no but also incorporate questions like why or how so that systematic recording of the data probes deeper meaning and understanding. The in-depth interview is a guided conversation where different ideas as well as situations can be explored (Bound Stack, 2012). The common characteristics that will be portrayed during the research would be that the respondents from the organization while conversing can explore boundaries highlighting the context of the problem like IT problems that caused delays as well as customer service failures that caused quite a damage to the reputation of the business. The main issue like the question of cash can be evaluated by giving potential solutions and even managing the results from the quantitative methods (Gosling, 2015). However, undertaking this strategy highlights some advantages as well as disadvantages in the research methods. Strengths Weaknesses It helps in providing more information about the key issue as well as the trends of the organization Kukri. It can give bias responses because the manager does not want to put his job at stake. It is conversation based so it gives respondents a comfortable atmosphere so that they can speak with the chain of thoughts. It is time exhaustive as the researcher as well as interviewer needs to take out time from their busy schedules to conduct the research (Fowler, 2013). Different types of conversation can be used such as direct as well as indirect because if the respondents are not comfortable then the interviewer can take forward the conversation in third person rather illustrating the situation in the form of a case study (De Vaus, 2013). As it will be based on small sampling, the data gathered cannot be generalized but the issues as well as the trends of the Kukri will be known Analysis:In-depth interview research method is carried to analyse the decision making process of the managers in the organization. Even more, its weaknesses cannot be considered evident as its might help in getting those results that were unanticipated by the interviewer. Table 2: Strength and weakness of the analysis (Source: created by author) Participant Observation This type of research study is effective because it helps in providing while anticipating the daily life of the group or the organization such that the nature of the organization can be met by the behaviour as well as interpretations that are observed while conversing with the respondent. Although, is a screening process but the conversation is carried out in leisure time for an extended period of time with local language as well as dialect. The information is recording in field notes (Spradley, 2016). This can be other method that can help in analysing the framework of the internal environment of Kukri. Moreover, it can be analysed tacit as well as explicit information in writing as well as analysis. The analysis can divide its participant with the degree of involvement in the organization. Type of Participation Source: (Spradley, 2016) The strengths and weaknesses can be highlighted as under. Strengths Weaknesses It is a best method as respondents behaviour and attitude will help in describing the way a person can actually take decision for his organization Only the current behaviour of the research is recorded which can be misleading and result to biasness (Robson and McCartan, 2016) It is efficient in short samples and becomes suitable when contacted a bunch of people. It does not help us examine the respondents as a whole as the respondents knowledge as well as the ideas are not shared (Garner Scott, 2013). It also helps in recording the nature of past behaviour to understand the reasons that went wrong when the issue like question of cash took place. It is time consuming. Analysis:The basic function that helps in undertaking this research method is that the emotional reactions provided with the participants helps in giving analytical leads. Moreover, it allows the ethnographer to identify the biases and prejudices over changing attitudes of the events as well as the people. Table 3: Strength and weakness of the participating observation (Source: created by author) Participants, Sampling, Cost/ Funding, Time frames, Resource and feasibility When analysing through the participants only a short number of sample can be considered on the qualitative research. Although, it is time consuming but the result generated on the qualitative approach can represent a great deal of happening just like observed in the Kukri organization regarding the supplies. In-depth interview might not be feasible but participants observation is effective. The sampling that will be taken for this particular research will be purposive sampling as only top management will be considered for the event of issues and the status of the internal environment of Kukri. This sampling is considered to be successful amongst all others as the analysis is subject to done in conjunction with data collection. Ethical and cultural consideration in research in Kukri (Sportswear Organization)Ethical considerations are an important part of any research. In order to have a successful integrated research about the international sportswear, Kukri, various ethical considerations must be considered while conducting the survey and the analysis (El-Khani, et al., 2013). Firstly, the effectiveness of the research method undertaken should be based on the ethical principles that will lower the finding possibilities. Secondly, the ethically an organization like Kukri has ethical standing and the issue had indirectly affected its reputation in the New Zealand. Thirdly, ethical considerations are taken for more credibility and leadership that can be undertaken in fostering human dignity or the provision of services. Lastly, the professional and legal issues are held in by professional certification or licensure organizations (Wilcoxon, RemleyJr Gladding, 2013).Cultural considerations also play an importan t part in the research of the international sportswear brand. The major key ethical issues and cultural are: Consent/Assent for the respondents In order to publish the views of the respondent in any research paper, it is essential for the researcher to take the consent of the respondent. This consent is important as the respondent may not be comfortable to allow his views to publish. It might create various legal issues in near future and hamper the interest of the research. The sport brand, Kukri, might fall into legal trouble before publishing their research (Miller, et al., 2012). Thus, the company must frame its consent forms for the respondents and ask them to fill up after the survey is done. Confidentiality The researcher should maintain privacy and confidentiality of the data that it is publishing in order to maintain the interests of an organization. It is also the responsibility of the researcher to secure the information that the participant is ready to reveal. Revealing confidential information of the respondents is considered as a crime. If the researcher is not comfortable in publishing his confidential information in the research paper, and the researcher publishes them, the research could be charged with criminal offences. This would not abide by the ethical consideration and violate the civilian rights of the respondents. Kukri, being an important brand in international sports wear, should not reveal the confidential information of their respondents and research. This would also help to prevent revealing of the success of their business to other competitors. Honesty It is also ethical for the researcher to maintain honesty while conducting the survey. The data and the analysis that the researcher presents should not be fake. It is also essential for the researcher to conduct its own survey. It will be unethical if the researcher copies the work of the other researcher. Honesty is important in research. Gaining the trust of respondents and living up to the expectations of the respondents is the foremost important ethical consideration on the company. Dishonesty would lead to degradation of the brand value and it would hamper their business. (Waycott, et al., 2015). Openness when the researcher surveys the respondents about their views regarding the international sports brand, he should be open about the pros and cons of the research to the respondent (Bryman, 2013). The respondents must be told about the various risks present in the research. Not disclosing the pros and cons of the research would hamper the rights of the respondent and Kukri might be into legal troubles in near future. Reveling about the research is important under ethical considerations. Cultural issues Cultural issues are another important part that must be considered while doing the research. People of various cultures use the international sports brand. They differ in taste and research that includes these various tastes turns out to be a successful one. Cultural difference leads to difference in the preference of the design, color, and quality of the sportswear. Considering these diversities is important for the research (Shaw, 2016). If various cultures of New Zealand is not considered under the research, there would be a difference created among various cultures and it would hamper the importance of the research. This would in turn create indifference among the people and the company would be tagged as partial to their users. Troubles would be created due to the indifferences and the aim of the research could not be attained. Objectivity- Bias in experimental design and data analysis should be avoided by the researcher. Personal and financial interests must be avoided that may affect the research. It is also essential for the researcher to be sincere and strive for consistency (Miller, et al., 2012). The research should include people of every culture and regions of New Zealand. The international sport wear company should not be bias in their research and they must have an outcome of their research which is beneficial for every people who prefer sportswear. Discrimination should not be considered into research and the objective of the company must be beneficial for every class of people. Treaty of Witangi and principles: The Treaty of Witangi was signed between British Crown and Maori in the year 1840. Waitangi Tribunal established the Treaty of Witangi Act 1975. This is the law that refers to the treaty. The court cases helped in defining the new laws and findings of Waitangi Tribunal. The meaning of the treaty to the contemporary New Zealand society has been outlined. The text treaty is regarded as law as the version of English and Maori version are not the same. The treaty text focuses on the issues relevant at the time of signing. The goals and the intentions are taken into account in the treaty Principles: The treaty helps in building partnership and there is a duty for the partners to act in good faith and reasonably There is freedom to govern by the Crown It is the duty of the Crown to protect the interest of Maori Crown has to consult with Maori The Crown will not be avoiding the obligation under the treaty by conferring the authority to some other body The new circumstances are taken into account in the treaty Taonga includes the intangible assets of culture and all the resources are valued. Conclusions To conclude, it can be said that integrative research has helped in carrying out the research method that are appropriate for the issue that Kukri faced in 2015 regarding question of cash. However, the appropriate methods that can be appropriate under qualitative and quantitative approach were undertaken. Nevertheless, without respondents research cannot be possible. However, this outlines the ethical considerations that had be take in the research as well as in correspondence with the organization. References Bound, H., Stack, S. (2012). Practitioner Action Research., Singapore, pp.40-50 Bryman, A. (Ed.). (2013).Doing research in organizations. Routledge, New York, pp. 150-200. Bryman, A., Bell, E. (2015).Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 230-320 Campbell, D. T., Stanley, J. C. (2015).Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Ravenio Books., USA, pp. 200-300 Creswell, J. W. (2013).Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications., USA, pp.256-500 De Vaus, D. (2013).Surveys in social research. Routledge , Australia, pp. 320-330 El-Khani, A., Ulph, F., Redmond, A. D., Calam, R. (2013). Ethical issues in research into conflict and displacement.The Lancet,382(9894), pp. 764-765. Fowler Jr, F. J. (2013).Survey research methods. Sage publications, USA, pp.110-134 Garner, R., Scott, G. M. (2013).Doing qualitative research: designs, methods, and techniques. Pearson Education , California, pp 160-177. Gosling, P. (2015).Questions of Cash: South Africa was stitched into the kit. It.The Independent. Retrieved 21 June 2016, from https://www.independent.co.uk/money/spend-save/questions-of-cash-south-africa-was-stitched-into-the-kit-it-should-say-holland-9954839.html Kremers, H. M., akir, B. (2014). Issues in Setting Up a Study and Data Collection. InUnderstanding Evidence-Based Rheumatology. Springer International Publishing, USA, pp. 141-157. Krickeberg, K., Pham, V. T., Pham, T. M. H. (2012). Cross-Sectional Studies. InEpidemiology. Springer New York , pp. 143-146 Miller, T., Birch, M., Mauthner, M., Jessop, J. (Eds.). (2012).Ethics in qualitative research. Sage , Cambridge pp. 230-235 Robson, C., McCartan, K. (2016).Real world research. John Wiley Sons , London pp. 230-359 Shaw, W. (2016).Business ethics: A textbook with cases. Nelson Education. USA. pp. 280-290 Shuttleworth, M. (2016).Quasi-Experimental Design - Experiments without randomization.Explorable.com. Retrieved 21 June 2016, from https://explorable.com/quasi-experimental-design Spradley, J. P. (2016).Participant observation. Waveland Press. USA, pp. 230-298. Walliman, N. (2015).Social Research Methods: The Essentials. Sage., London, pp. 230-289 Waycott, J., Guillemin, M., Warr, D. J., Cox, S., Drew, S., Howell, C. (2015). Re/formulating Ethical Issues for Visual Research Methods.Visual Methodologies,3(2), Canada, pp. 4-15. Weinreich, N. (2016).Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Social Marketing Research.Social-marketing.com. Retrieved 21 June 2016, from https://www.social-marketing.com/research.html Wilcoxon, A., RemleyJr, T. P., Gladding, S. T. (2013).Ethical, legal, and professional issues in the practice of marriage and family therapy. Pearson Higher Ed, New Orleans, pp. 230-250

The History Of Radio Essays - Broadcast Engineering,

The History of Radio In 1844, Samuel Morse successfully demonstrated an invention known as the telegraph. The telegraph, which Morse invented in 1832, consisted of a current charged wire, location points (A and B), and a current breaker, which could be used to send dashes and dots. These dashes and dots could be successfully understood at the other end of the cable, thus introducing the world to Morse code. Thirty-two years later, a man by the name of Alexander Graham Bell introduced a device that would come to be known as the telephone. With Graham's device, people could actually talk to each other by using a series of connecting lines placed between the sender and receiver. At the time, the United States wanted to use this as a means for communications at sea. The only problem was that there was not a wireless form in existence. In 1897 everything changed. An Italian inventor named Guglielmo Marconi, developed the first ?wireless? system and patented it in Great Britain. In 1899, a steam ship was equipped with Marconi's device and used it to transmit the results of a yacht race back to the shore. The beginning of a new era in mass communications was beginning. As the dreams of transmitting speech and live concerts to secondary locations grew, a man by the name of Reginald Fessenden (?flyboy? Regi F to his peep's?not really but I though that might help break up the monotony of reading twenty papers over the same subject) stepped in with his application of a continuos wave super imposed on another wave created by sound. In 1905, a man by the name of Lee de Forest developed a radio vacuum tube that he called the Audion. The Audion was inspired by the invention of a glass bulb detector that had been created a few years earlier by John Fleming. This enabled the telephone to receive and amplify sound and was a key element in the development of radio broadcasting. In order to gain publicity for his ventures, de Forest spent a night on top of the Eiffel Tower broadcasting music, which was received by people up to 500 miles away. De Forest used radio as a medium to educate and uplift his audience by broadcasting opera's and broadcasting the presidential returns in 1916. By 1917, there were close to nine thousand radio transmitters in the United States. When the U.S. declared war on Germany, transmitters were either shut down, or taken over by the armed forces. With the First World War, came advances in the industry. The Allies convinced all the companies to work together in establishing interchangeable parts. Over the course of the War, the Navy continued to communicate with America's armed forces and in 1918, even broadcast President Wilson's appeal for peace to the citizens of Germany. The Navy became worried by the end of the war that Marconi's British company might be in the position to take over control of world communications. In an effort to pre-empt Marconi, Navy officials and General Electric president Owen Young formed the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) in 1919. The government then turned over all of the American Marconi stations that had been seized by the Navy during the war, to RCA. With the support of AT&T and General Electric, RCA would soon dominate communications in and out of America. By the 1920's, radio had become more than just a means for ship to shore communication. Stations began to pop up all over the country and corporate America, along with the public, began to take notice. Westinghouse began manufacturing and selling radio units. As an incentive to buy the units, programming was developed. AT&T was not pleased. They believed that under the RCA agreement, they were the only one's who could set up radio stations. In their view, radio stations were nothing short of over sized telephone booths that could be used to communicate over long geographical distances. In order to keep people listening in the interim, they began having people on the air to play music or to sing. In 1922, AT&T was approached by a developer who wanted to build Hawthorne Estates. His proposal was to pay AT&T money to talk about the

Computer Calamities essays

Computer Calamities essays There's nothing worst than when a machine that you depend on so much, just decides it doesn't want to work anymore. If you run a business and your computer stops working, most of the time you do too. If this happens, your problems could range from small , something you can handle yourself, or they can be very big. In this case a professional can help. To help reduce the cost, identify the problem before you have it serviced if you can. According to some hardware and software manufactures, many people call customer service for some rather common and annoying problems. Technicians have pointed out that , people tend to overlook the obvious when diagnosing computer problems. Some of the most common questions asked are as follows: Why won't my system boot? The first thing you should check is the power cord and all other connections to make sure they are attached securely. A lot of things happen when you turn on your computer. It begins by running a diagnostic routine to make sure all system components are working properly. If your computer beeps a few times and stops working before it displays a message on your monitor, there's a chance that a critical piece of hardware has failed. It may be a good idea to seek professional help at this time. Also, you could have a dead battery if nothing happens after you hear the floppy drive whir. Your computer depends on a battery to preserve important system settings when it is cut off. Batteries can die as often as every two years. Why is my system so slow? Even if you have the fastest CPU money can buy, it won't do much good if you 're running short on memory. Today's computer should have at least 8MB of RAM to work effectively. If you can afford 16MBs, it will pay for itself with added productivity. An inefficient hard drive can also slow down your system. This can be solved by upgrading your hard drive. Fragmented files may be another reason for a ...

Working thesis statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Working thesis statement - Essay Example In my earlier papers; one on Definition Essay which discussed fashion's negative impact on societies throughout history, and The Midterm Essay, wherein I discussed how the health and beauty industries have all along encouraged us to think of our bodies in terms of machines, I had maintained that health could not be compromised for the sake of appearance. To prove this, I quoted the names of Luisel Ramos and Ana Carolina Reston, who, seeking stardom and money, paid the supreme prize for their body abuse. Sad, but true, this is the life of models, who walk the ramps to the appeasement of a handful. In order to substantiate my argument that the two industries (Health and Beauty) in discussion have all along been more inclined to improve their personal interests, this research will take a look at what happens behind the scene. Fashion and beauty are but short-lived, life is not. Being identical to a Jane Fonda or an Arnold Schwarzenegger does not guarantee stardom or success. Every indiv idual on his or her own terms is as attractive as any other. It's all in the mind. Models have for long caught our attention as being pretty and sexy. The notion that men prefer women with a model's body is all wrong. Does this mean that women who are healthy are less attractive or pretty Definitely not! In fact, men prefer women with more flesh.

Advertising strategy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Advertising strategy - Assignment Example For example, the advertisements of Cadbury Dairy Milk often apply the strategy of recall and testing the memory of its viewer by making the purple color recognition with the brand. Similarly, Coca-Cola often uses this strategy with the use of red color. Coca-Cola used this strategy in painting walls with red color. This is an advertising concept which helps in understanding how a consumer reacts to the information provided by companies through advertisements. It helps companies to learn features of a brand (Yeshin). For example, ‘Nutrisystem’ a weight loss program developed advertisements which only focused upon providing ample amount of information in its advertisements so that their customers can make informed decisions. The advertisement reflected upon answering various questions regarding weight loss which makes a user informed and they learn about a certain product. Association refers to a concept that links a brand with characteristics and style of a particular personality (Yeshin). For example, Rolex advertisements reflect a certain type of class and prestige associated with its brand and not every person has the capability to afford the brand. Similarly, Apple product advertisements are targeting the similar audience and conveying a similar message. The concept focuses on developing intent of motivation and influences viewers to act something in return (Yeshin). For example, DiGiorno is maintaining a perfect job in enticing people to purchase and try their product. DiGiorno provides frozen pizzas and other similar products to their customers and in their advertisements they are influencing customers by showing three different plates of meals and also define calories that each meal contains. Despite the information provided to the customer he prefers pizza from DiGiorno that have high calories. The idea reflects the intent of influential approach. The concept reflects a mirror image about

Information and Communication Technology in Higher Education Essay Example for Free

Information and Communication Technology in Higher Education Essay Introduction: Information and communication technology (ICT) is a force that has changed many aspects of the way we live. If one was to compare such fields as medicine, tourism, travel, business, law, banking, engineering and architecture, the impact of ICT across the past two or three decades has been enormous. The way these fields operate today is vastly different from the ways they operated in the past. But when one looks at education, there seems to have been an uncanny lack of influence and far less change than other fields have experienced. A number of people have attempted to explore this lack of activity and influence (e.g. Collis, 2002). There have been a number of factors impeding the wholesale uptake of ICT in education across all sectors. These have included such factors as a lack of funding to support the purchase of the technology, a lack of training among established teaching practitioners, a lack of motivation and need among teachers to adopt ICT as teaching tools (Starr, 2001). But in recent times, factors have emerged which have strengthened and encouraged moves to adopt ICTs into classrooms and learning settings. As we move into the 21st century, these factors and many others are bringing strong forces to bear on the adoption of ICTs in education and contemporary trends suggest we will soon see large scale changes in the way education is planned and delivered as a consequence of the opportunities and affordances of ICT. This paper seeks to explore the likely changes we will see in education as ICT acts as a powerful agent to change many of the educational practices to which we have become accustomed. In particular, the paper will explore the impact both current and emerging information and communication technologies will be likely to have in coming years on what is learned, when and where learning will take place and how the learning will occur. The impact of ICT on what is learned: Conventional teaching has emphasized content. For many years course have been written around textbooks. Teachers have taught through lectures and presentations interspersed with tutorials and learning activities designed to consolidate and rehearse the content. Contemporary settings are now favoring curricula that promote competency and performance. Curricula are starting to Emphasize capabilities and to be concerned more with how the information will be used than with what the information is. A. competency and performance-based curricula: The moves to competency and performance-based curricula are well supported and encouraged by emerging instructional technologies (e.g. Stephenson, 2001). Such curricula tend to require: access to a variety of information sources; access to a variety of information forms and types; student-centered learning settings based on information access and inquiry; learning environments centered on problem-centered and inquiry-based activities; authentic settings and examples; and teachers as coaches and mentors rather than content experts. Contemporary ICTs are able to provide strong support for all these requirements and there are now many outstanding examples of world class settings for competency and performance-based curricula that make sound use of the affordances of these technologies (e.g. Oliver, 2000). For many years, teachers wishing to adopt such curricula have been limited by their resources and tools but with the proliferation and widespread availability of contemporary ICTs, many Restrictions and impediments of the past have been removed. And new technologies will continue to drive these forms of learning further. As students and teachers gain access to higher Bandwidths, more direct forms of communication and access to sharable resources, the capability To support these quality learning settings will continue to grow. B. information literacy Another way in which emerging ICTs are impacting on the content of education curricula stems from the ways in which ICTs are dominating so much of contemporary life and work. Already There has emerged a need for educational institutions to ensure that graduates are able to display Appropriate levels of information literacy, â€Å"the capacity to identify and issue and then to identify, Locate and evaluate relevant information in order to engage with it or to solve a problem arising from it† (McCausland, Wache Berk, 1999, p.2). The drive to promote such developments Stems from general moves among institutions to ensure their graduates demonstrate not only skills and knowledge in their subject domains but also general attributes and generic skills. Traditionally generic skills have involved such capabilities as an ability to reason formally, to Solve problems, to communicate effectively, to be able to negotiate outcomes, to manage time, Project management, and collaboration and teamwork skills. The growing use of ICTs as tools of Every day life have seen the pool of generic skills expanded in recent years to include information Literacy and it is highly probable that future developments and technology applications will see This set of skills growing even more. The impact of ICT on how students learn Just as technology is influencing and supporting what is being learned in schools and universities, So too is it supporting changes to the way students are learning. Moves from content-centered Curricula to competency-based curricula are associated with moves away from teacher-centered Forms of delivery to student-centered forms. Through technology-facilitated approaches, Contemporary learning settings now encourage students to take responsibility for their own Learning .In the past students have become very comfortable to learning through transmissive Modes. Students have been trained to let others present to them the information that forms the Curriculum. The growing use of ICT as an instructional medium is changing and will likely Continue to change many of the strategies employed by both teachers and students in the learning Process. The following sections describe particular forms of learning that are gaining prominence in universities and schools worldwide. A. Student-centered learning Technology has the capacity to promote and encourage the transformation of education from a Very teacher directed enterprise to one which supports more student-centered models. Evidence of This today is manifested in: The proliferation of capability, competency and outcomes focused curricula Moves towards problem-based learning Increased use of the Web as an information source, Internet users are able to choose the Experts from whom they will learn The use of ICT in educational settings, by itself acts as a catalyst for change in this domain. ICTs By their very nature are tools that encourage and support independent learning. Students using ICTs for learning purposes become immersed in the process of learning and as more and more Students use computers as information sources and cognitive tools (e.g. Reeves Jonassen, 1996), the influence of the technology on supporting how students learn will continue to increase. B. Supporting knowledge construction The emergence of ICTs as learning technologies has coincided with a growing awareness and recognition of alternative theories for learning. The theories of learning that hold the greatest Sway today is those based on constructivist principles (e.g. Duffy Cunningham, 1996). These Principles posit that learning is achieved by the active construction of knowledge supported by various perspectives within meaningful contexts. The strengths of constructivism lie in its emphasis on learning as a process of personal understanding and the development of meaning in ways which are active and interpretative. In This domain learning is viewed as the construction of meaning rather than as the memorization of facts (e.g. Lebow, 1993; Jonassen Reeves, 1996). Learning approaches using contemporary ICTs provide many opportunities for constructivist learning through their provision and support for resource-based, student centered settings and by enabling learning to be related to context and to pract ice (e.g. Berge, 1998; Barron, 1998). As mentioned previously, any use of ICT in learning Settings can act to support various aspects of knowledge construction and as more and more Students employ ICTs in their learning processes, the more pronounced the impact of this will Become. The impact of ICT on when and where students learn In the past educational institutions have provided little choice for students in terms of the method And manner in which programs have been delivered. Students have typically been forced to Accept what has been delivered and institutions have tended to be quite staid and traditional in terms of the delivery of their programs. ICT applications provide many options and choices and Many institutions are now creating competitive edges for themselves through the choices they are offering students. A. Any place learning The concept of flexibility in the delivery place of educational programs is not new (e.g. Moore Kersey, 1996). Educational institutions have been offering programs at a distance for many Years and there has been a vast amount of research and development associated with establishing Effective practices and procedures in off-campus teaching and learning. Use of the technology, However, has extended the scope of this activity and whereas previously off-campus delivery was An option for students who were unable to attend campuses, today, many more students are able to make this choice through technology-facilitated learning settings. The scope and extent of this Activity is demonstrated in some of the examples below. The communications capabilities of modern technologies provide opportunities for many Learners to enroll in courses offered by external institutions rather than those situated locally. These opportunities provide such advantages as extended course offerings and eclectic class Cohorts comprised of students of differing backgrounds, cultures and perspectives. ï‚ ·Ã¯â‚¬  The freedoms of choice provided by programs that can be accessed at any place are also Supporting the delivery of programs with units and courses from a variety of institutions, There are now countless ways for students completing undergraduate degrees for example, to Study units for a single degree, through a number of different institutions, an activity that Provides considerable diversity and choice for students in the programs they complete. B. Any time learning In concert with geographical flexibility, technology-facilitated educational programs also remove Many of the temporal constraints that face learners with special needs (e.g. Moore Kearsley, 1996). Students are starting to appreciate the capability to undertake education anywhere, Anytime and any place. This flexibility has heightened the availability of just-in-time learning and provided learning opportunities for many more learners who previously were constrained by other commitments (e.g. Young, 2002). Through online technologies learning has become an activity that is no longer set within Programmed schedules and slots. Learners are free to participate in learning activities when time permits and these freedoms have greatly increased the opportunities for many students to Participate in formal programs. ï‚ ·Ã¯â‚¬  The wide varieties of technologies that support learning are able to provide asynchronous Supports for learning so that the need for real-time participation can be avoided while the Advantages of communication and collaboration with other learners are retained. Emerging Issues A number of other issues have emerged from the uptake of technology whose impacts have yet to Be fully explored. These include changes to the makeup of the teacher pool, changes to the Profile of who are the learners in our courses and paramount in all of this, changes in the costing And economics of course delivery. A. expanding the pool of teachers In the past, the role of teacher in an educational institution was a role given to only highly qualified people. With technology-facilitated learning, there are now opportunities to extend the Teaching pool beyond this specialist set to include many more people. The changing role of the Teacher has seen increased opportunities for others to participate in the process including Workplace trainers, mentors, specialists from the workplace and others. Through the affordances And capabilities of technology, today we have a much expanded pool of teachers with varying Roles able to provide support for learners in a variety of flexible settings. This trend seems set to Continue and to grow with new ICT developments and applications. And within this changed pool of teachers will come changed responsibilities and skill sets for future teaching involving high levels of ICT and the need for more facilitative than didactic teaching roles. B. expanding the pool of students In the past, education has been a privilege and an opportunity that often was unavailable to many students whose situation did not fit the mainstream. Through the flexibilities provided by technology, many students who previously were unable to participate in educational activities are now finding opportunities to do so. The pool of students is changing and will continue to change as more and more people who have a need for education and training are able to take advantage of the increased opportunities. Interesting opportunities are now being observed among, for example, school students studying university courses to overcome limitations in their school programs and workers undertaking courses from their desktops. C. The cost of education Traditional thinking has always been that technology-facilitated learning would provide economies and efficiencies that would see significant reductions in the costs associated with the delivery of educational programs. The costs would come from the ability to create courses with fixed establishment costs, for example technology-based courses, and for which there would be savings in delivery through large scale uptake. We have already seen a number of virtual universities built around technology delivery alone. The reality is that few institutions have been able to realize these aims for economy. There appear to have been many underestimated costs in such areas as course development and course delivery. The costs associated with the development of high quality technology-facilitated learning materials are quite high. It has found to be more than a matter of repackaging existing materials and large scale reengineering has been found to be necessary with large scale costs. Likewise costs associated with delivery have not been found to diminish as expected. The main reason for this has been the need to maintain a relatively stable student to staff ratio and the expectation of students that they will have access to teachers in their courses and programs. Compared to traditional forms of off-campus learning, technology-facilitated learning has proven to be quite expensive in all areas of consideration, infrastructure, course development and course delivery. We may have to brace ourselves for the advantages and affordances which will improve the quality of education in the near future to also increase components of the cost. Efforts of Indian government in this aspect Realizing the importance of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) the Ministry of Human Resource Development as per the Mission Document, ICT is the tool in education available to enhance the current enrolment rate in Higher Education, at present 15 percent to 30 percent by the end of the 11th Plan period. The Ministry also launched a web portal named â€Å"SAKSHAT† a ‘One Stop Education Portal’. The high quality e-content once developed will be uploaded on SAKSHAT in all disciplines and subjects. Several projects are in the completion stage and are expected to change the way teaching and learning is done in India. The Mission has two major components viz., (a) content generation and (b) connectivity along with provision for access devices for institutions and learners. It seeks to bRDge the digital divide, i.e., the gap in the skills to use computing devices for the purpose of teaching and learning among urban and rural teachers/learners in Higher Education domain and empower those, who have hitherto remained untouched by the digital revolution and have not been able to join the mainstream of the knowledge economy. It plans to focus on appropriate pedagogy for e-learning, providing facility of performing experiments through virtual laboratories, on-line testing and certification, on-line availability of teachers to guide and mentor learners, utilization of available Education Satellite (EduSAT) and Direct to Home (DTH) platforms, training and empowerment of teachers to effectively use the new method of teaching learning etc. On the one hand, the Mission would create high quality e-content for the target groups and on the other, it would simultaneously seek to extend computer infrastructure and connectivity to over 18000 colleges in the country including each of the departments of nearly 400 universities/deemed universities and institutions of national importance. The peer group assisted content development would utilize the Wikipedia type of collaborative platform under the supervision of a content advisory committee responsible for vetting the content. Interactivity and problem solving approach would be addressed through â€Å"Talk to a Teacher† segment. It is an opportunity as well as a challenge for the bright faculty members of our Universities and Institutions of Excellence to invest their intellectual capital for the knowledge empowerment of all the learners of our Country. We need to synergize our individual efforts in this direction. Summary and Conclusions This paper has sought to explore the role of ICT in education as we progress into the 21st century. In particular the paper has argued that ICTs have impacted on educational practice in education to date in quite small ways but that the impact will grow considerably in years to come and that ICT will become a strong agent for change among many educational practices. Extrapolating current activities and practices, the continued use and development of ICTs within education will have a strong impact on: What is learned; How it is learned; When and where learning takes place; Who is learning and who is teaching. To ensure that the opportunities and advantages are realized, it will be important as it is in every other walk of life to ensure that the educational research and development dollar is sustained so that education at large can learn from within and that experiences and activities in different institutions and sectors can inform and guide others without the continual need for re-invention of the wheel. Once again ICTs serve to provide the means for much of this activity to realize the potential it holds. References Collis, B. (2002). Information technologies for education and training. In Adelsberger, H., Collis, B, Pawlowski, J. (Eds.) Handbook on Technologies for Information and Training. Berlin: Springer Verlag. Duffy, T., Cunningham, D. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction, Handbook of research for educational telecommunications and technology (pp. 170-198). New York: MacMillan. Oliver, R. (2000). Creating Meaningful Contexts for Learning in Web-based Settings. Proceedings of Open Learning 2000. (pp 53-62). Brisbane: Learning Network, Queensland. Oliver, R. Towers, S. (2000). Benchmarking ICT literacy in tertiary learning settings. In R. Sims, M. O’Reilly S. Sawkins (Eds). Learning to choose: Choosing to learn. Proceedings of the 17th Annual ASCILITE Conference (pp 381-390). Lismore, NSW: Southern Cross University Press. Soloway, E. Pryor, A. (1996). The next generation in human-computer interaction. Communications of the ACM, 39(4), 16-18. Starr, L. (2001). Available at http://www.education-world.com/a_tech/tech075.shtml [Accessed July 2002]. Stephenson, J., Ed. (2001). Learner-managed learning- an emerging pedagogy for online learning. Teaching and Learning Online: Pedagogies for New Technologies. London, Kogan Page. Young, J. (2002). The 24-hour professor. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 48(38), 31-33.